Photoelectric Experiment 6 Fermi-Dirac distribution, Eisberg and 4 optional, p contact potential, qualitative Resnick, ref. Diffraction of Experiment 6 Interference of waves, Bragg Kittel, ref. I 3 x rays and optional, p law, periodicity in crystal microwaves by lattices, reciprocal lattice, periodic x-ray spectra structures Franck-Hertz Experiment 6 Quantum theory description of Eisberg and 3 optional, p the energy levels of mercury, Resnick, ref.
Structure of Appendix D, First-order perturbation theory Richtmyer, ref. Molecular Appendix D, Detailed discussion of Herzberg, ref. Zeeman effect Experiment 6 Schrodinger' s equation and Eisberg and 3 optional, p quantum states of electrons Resnick, ref.
Electrical None Semiclassical theory of Kittel, ref. I 3 conductivity electrical conduction, and the Hall elementary description of effect bands in metals and semiconductors, Boltzmann factor and Lorentz force Compton Appendix 13, Compton scattering, Eisberg and 3 scattering Scintillation Counter relativistic kinematics Resnick, ref.
Ionization of None Dynamics of electrons, Bleuler and 3 gases by ex. Rutherford None Cross section and solid angle, Tipler, ref. The Faraday None Electromagnetic waves, Portis. Coaxial Transmission Line. Optical Fiber. Microcomputers Robert Oppenheimer. A basic quest of humans, regardless of culture Commonplace as such experiments nuclear mag- and nationality, is to know where they are in the netic resonance have become in our laboratories, universe, how they came to be, and what the I have not yet lost a feeling of wonder, and of future holds for them.
Physics is a highly devel- delight, that this delicate motion precession of oped manifestation of the desire to determine our nuclear spins in a magnetic field should reside in all the ordinary things around us, revealing itself origin and our future.
For instance, quantum only to him who looks for it. I remember, in the mechanics, in principle, allows us to understand winter of our first experiments, just seven years the macromolecules that make up our bodies, and ago, looking on snow with new eyes.
There the the general theory of relativity is fundamental to snow lay around my doorstep-great heaps of our understanding of stellar and galactic evolu- protons quietly precessing in the earth's magnetic tion. To see the world for a moment as some- The theories of physics are, in general, abstract thing rich and strange is the private reward of and mathematical, and the physical systems that many a discovery. Purcell, Nobel Lecture, experiences. For these reasons nonscientists often consider physics as devoid of the characteristics referred to as human, namely, feelings, senti- Nature-from crystals to flowers-is full of ever ments, and emotions.
What they do not recognize recurring characteristic shapes and symmetries. This reason Although some people may view physics as is found in quantum mechanics: The wave nature lacking human characteristics, all agree that the of electrons forces them into typical patterns, the observation of natural phenomena is often an shapes of standing waves in the spherically sym- awe-inspiring event.
Examples are observation of metric Coulomb field. These shapes are the fun- a lunar or solar eclipse, or simply the observation damental patterns of Nature, which are the basis of a moonlit mountain covered with snow. There of all the shapes we observe Weisskopf, Oersted Medal recipient, which is usually not observed by others. The human element of scientific investigation is Observations rarely brought to the attention of the general public.
The form of scientific publications is an example of this kind of omission. A publication typically includes an abstract, introduction, re- sults, and conclusion, and suggests a straight- arrow path from the conception of the project to its completion. We have a habit in writing articles published in scientific journals to make the work as finished as possible, to cover the tracks, to not worry about the blind alleys or to describe how you had the wrong idea first, and so on.
So there isn't any place to publish, in a dignified manner, what you Predictions actually did in order to get to do the work, although, there has been in these days, some interest in this kind of thing. I Schematic diagram of the scientific method. Richard P. Feynman, Nobel Lecture, In addition to the form of a scientific publica- tion, the scientific method does not suggest a The form of a scientific publication suggests human side to science.
In reality, the path to the that scientists have a method that always leads to completion of a scientific project is usually long the final result. Indeed, there is a method, called and arduous and, as indicated by Feynman, is the scientific method, which may be summarized filled with wrong ideas, blind alleys, and the like. Develop a theory sion, in the pursuit of scientific investigations. Develop a model structure of hydrogen was clear in my mind.
Willis E. It is not always possible to correlate all of the observa- I worked on this problem quantum electro- dynamics about eight years until the final publi- tions, and one observation is not correlated in the cation in It is hindsight that allows us to claim that a Richard P.
Feynman, Nobel Lecture, scientific method exists. From a historical perspec- My first introduction to superconductivity came tive it is possible to identify the existence of this in the 's My first abortive attempt to method, but rarely can we discern it clearly from construct a theory, in 's It was not until the work of an individual scientist.
Planetary as- , as a result of the discovery of the isotope tronomy provides a clean-cut example. Tycho effect, that I again began to become interested in superconductivity, Brahe carried out careful observations. Johannes Kepler correlated the observations and developed John Bardeen, Nobel Lecture, a model for planetary motions usually stated as For a few days I was beside myself with joyous Kepler's three laws.
Sir Isacc Newton discovered excitement. Today, Boltzmann's work in physics is highly regarded, primarily because of The basic aims of the laboratory are to have the his contributions to kinetic theory and for the student do the following: statistical interpretation that he gave to classical thermodynamics.
A large part of his lifework 1. Gain an understanding of some basic physical was related to the atomic theory of matter. Un- concepts and theories. Realize that completely functioning experimen- physicists that matter was composed of atoms. Gain familiarity with a variety of instruments theory of matter, and Boltzmann came to be and learn to make reliable measurements.
The 4. Learn how precisely a measurement can be despondency that led to his suicide may have made with a given instrument and the size of resulted from the rejection of his work by the the measurement error. See the section on physics community. It is one of the most tragic "Error Analysis," page 7. Learn how to do calculations so that the re- ended his life just before the existence of atoms sults have the appropriate number of signifi- was finally established by experiments on Brow- cant figures.
See the section on "Significant nian motion. Figures," page During any experiment you are likely to ex- 6. Learn how to analyze data by calculations and perience some of the emotions just described, by plotting graphs that illustrate functional ranging from the disappointment of equipment relations.
See the sections on "Graphical failure to immense joy when the wiring, oscilla- Analysis" and "Curve Fitting," pages 18 and tor, amplifier, and computer respond in unison Learn how to keep an accurate and complete laboratory notebook.
See the following dis- cussion on the "Laboratory Notebook. Ultimately, learn how best to approach a new laboratory problem. Nobel I Physics, Vols. The four volumes cover from the In general, loose-leaf paper is not appropriate for first year the Nobel prize was awarded to It Unfortunately, later volumes did not exist when is recommended that you record data and do this book was written. Weisskopf, Physics Today, 23 June This General questions to be considered when writ- article is entitled "Is Physics Human?
Could I reproduce the experiment if I wanted to? Bardeen, Physics Today, 41 July This With these concepts in mind, it is suggested that paper is a reprint of Professor Bardeen's for each experiment in your lab notebook you Nobel Lecture.
Gillispie Ed. First write the title, date, partner, and page York, The biography of Ludwig Boltzmann numbers in the upper right-hand corner of the is on pp. Next: state a general purpose in one or two a figure of uncertainty or "error.
Throughout the experiment indi- following section on "Error Analysis. Write all calculated values in your notebook surements or calculations. In this instance, with the method of calculation clearly indi- the purpose may simply be a statement of cated. They will usually appear near the data exactly what is being measured if the "why" is and may be presented in the form of a table.
Each calculated result should include appropri- 3. Sketch the apparatus, free hand, but with the ate significant figures. Refer to the section on parts labeled. Record all original data directly in the labo- 7. To graph the data follow the guidelines listed ratory notebook, not on scratch paper. The in the section on "Graphical Analysis.
To record your results and conclusion, tell tant pieces of information you have, and briefly what you did and how it came out. For their loss should not be risked by recording example, if you measured a physical constant, them on scratch paper. Copying the data how does it compare with the "accepted" value wastes valuable time and risks mistakes. Be in the light of your estimated errors?
You may cross out The format of a notebook is not rigid, but it data that appear to be useless or wrong, but should follow the order in which you worked. As do not erase them-they may turn out to be you perform the experiment, you should carry out valuable. Such analyses 5. Make certain that measured quantities include should not be postponed. Barford, Experimental Measurements: Precision, Er- function of energy. In this experiment positrons ror.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, and electrons were accelerated to a center-of-mass The team varied the total energy in MeV steps and The verification of a physical law or the deter- measured the cross section for each energy. The barn, b, to the quantity or law under study. Any uncer- originally a tongue-in-cheek name for the "large" tainty in these readings would result in an uncer- area, 28 m2 , has become the standard unit for tainty in the final result.
A measurement alone, expressing nuclear cross sections. It typifies the without a quantitative statement as to the uncer- size of a nucleus. As you will learn in the discus- tainty involved, is of limited usefulness. It is there- sion on error analysis, 30 nb is more than two fore essential that any course in basic laboratory standard deviations from the mean value of 23 nb, technique include a discussion of the nature of the and the probability of measuring a value that is uncertainty in individual measurements and the more than two standard deviations from the mean manner in which uncertainties in two or more value is less than 5 percent.
Now, a careless measurements are propagated to determine the physicist might ignore a single data point that is uncertainty in the quantity or law being investi- more than two standard deviations from the gated.
Such uncertainties are called experimental mean, and perhaps miss a major discovery. It is a true story; we would not tell any measurements of the cross section from 3. This new particle, which they called the ijJ particle, has a rest mass of In the collection of data two types of experimental 3.
The same particle was simultaneously discov- Systematic errors are due to identifiable causes ered by a MIT-BNL Massachusetts Institute of and can, in principle, be eliminated.
Errors of this Technology-Brookhaven National Laboratory type result in measured values that are consis- team and they called it the J particle. It is now tently too high or consistently too low. Such a thermometer would Samuel C. Ting, the United States, Massachu- result in measured values that are consistently setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massa- too high.
For example, parallax in read- For their pionRering work in tfte diswvery of a fteav! I particle of ing a meter scale. For example, an electrical power "brown out" that causes measured cur- The moral of this story: There may be a Nobel rents to be consistently too low. Due to simplifications of the spurious data point.
Thus, explore take more model system or approximations in the equa- measurements before you ignore the spurious tions describing it-for example, if a frictional measurement. Augustin , A. Boyarski, M. Breidenbach, In principle an experimentalist wants to iden- F. Dakin, G. Feldman, G. Fischer, tify and to eliminate systematic errors. Fryberger, G. Hanson, B.
Jean-Marie, R. Random errors are positive and negative fluc- Larsen, V. Luth, H. Lynch, D. Paterson, M. Richter, ments to be too high and one-half to be too low. Rapidis, R. Schwitters, W. Tanenbaum, Sources of random errors cannot always be iden- F.
Yannucci, G. Abrams, D. Briggs, W. Chi- tified. Possible sources of random errors are as nowsky, C. Friedberg, G. Goldhaber, R. Kadyk, B. Lulu, F. Pierre, G. Trilling, J. Whitaker, J. Wiss, J. Zipse, Phys. For example, errors in judgment Rev. Richter, Adventures in Experimental Physics 5, measuring device to the smallest division. The name of this journal has been 2. For example, unpredictable changed to Adventures in Sciences. Ting, Adventures in Experimental Physics 5, mechanical vibrations of equipment.
Aubert, U. Becker, P. Biggs, J. Burger, M. Random errors, unlike systematic errors, can Chen, G. Everhart, P. Leong, T.
Rhodes, M. Rohde, S. Wu, Y. Lee, Phys. Each mark indicates the result of a measurement. The distinction between random errors and measured values about the mean value implies systematic errors can be illustrated with the fol- high precision. Suppose the measurement of a Now that we have determined the best value ' physical quantity is repeated five times under the for the measurement, that is i we need to esti- same conditions.
If there are only random errors mate the uncertainty or error in this value. ERRORS Note that the standard deviation is always posi- tive and that it has the same units as the measured If a physical quantity such as a length measured vaJues. The n measured values will be distributed about the mean value as 4 shown in Figure 1.
In many instances x ap- proaches the "true value" if n is very large and The interpretation of equation 4 is that the mea- there are no systematic errors. Examples x t x 1. In the mean value i. Figure I. In Einstein predicted, using his general values about the mean value for two sets of data, theory of relativity, that light from a star where each set is n repeated measurements of the would be bent through an angle of 1.
The x axis has been di- passed near the sun. A careful classical calcula- vided into increments of width Ax and each dot tion predicts the angle would be 0. In indicates a measured value. The dots are spread the bending of light was measured to be vertically for clarity. The data on the left are more 2. In Figure I. Note that the curve on the left, which corresponds to the data of The optical measurement of the bending of higher precision, is more sharply peaked than the starlight by the sun is difficult for the following curve on the right.
The smooth curves, which are reasons. The experiment involves taking a pho- nonsymmetrical in Figure l. If the number of same star field several months later. The two measurements n becomes very large, then the photographic plates are then compared to deter- measured values are symmetrically distributed mine the gravitational displacement of the star about the mean value, as shown in Figure I. Each curve in Figure I. The eclipse photographs represents the frequency with which the value x is must be taken at a temporary field observatory in obtained as the result of any single measurement.
During the eclipse Ideally, the analytical expression for such curves the temperature drops suddenly, causing a con- is traction of the telescope and an abrupt change in atmospheric tubulence. Equation 5 is the Ga. If the measurements are carried out with ment does not require a solar eclipse.
See Figure I. A , Note that the most probable value resulting from t Fomalont and Sramek, Phys. The dots are spread vertically for clarity. Use and implies data of higher precision. Summary of How to Treat Random We round off the calculated values, keeping an Errors appropriate number of significant figures.
See the section on "Significant Figures," page The best ways to treat random errors can be summarized as follows: 2. In Experiment 2 you are asked to slide a probe along a longitudinal slot in a waveguide and 1. Repeat the measurement n times. The measure- thereby to measure the electric field strength of ment could be, for example, a reading of an the electromagnetic field in the waveguide. For a certain frequency of the field, the alternating minima and maxima were observed 2.
Calculate the mean value. The result to be reported is. There are several ways to analyze the 3. Two ways Jn. The distribution of measurements is often forth, thus obtaining five values of A.
For both a and b calculate the mean value of A. The data are a set of measurements of the sources to make so many measurements, and be- length of a sheet of paper, made with a cm cause a simpler method of estimation of random rule. Figure 1. The distance d1 is the separation of the sharply defined vertical lines, and d2 is the dis- Addition and Subtraction of tance from center to center of the two "globs.
This method will be constants, since each constant is squared in equa- discussed separately for the addition and subtrac- tion If one of the estimated errors is signifi- tion of measurements, and for the multiplication cantly larger than the others, then we may ignore and division of measurements. The final error analysis should be carried out by using where each estimated error may be the smallest equation If w is some known function of the measured values, w x, y, z , then we may calculate w and its Examples error bw.
To determine bw, we start by calculating 1. Suppose that three measured lengths and their the differential dw: estimated errors are. We may estimate the error in the result, i5w, by ignoring all but the where oL was calculated by using equation For 2.
However, the final error analysis should be car- ried out by using equation To find ow, we apply the basic formula for error propagation, equation Then,. This definition can be illustrated to which a result should be quoted is obtained via with several examples see table. In this table, the. However, error analysis takes time, number 2, for example, implies that the measured and frequently in actual laboratory practice it is value is between l.
In such a situation, one should retain about 0. Here is an example: location relative to the decimal point. Examples 0. The quantity to be calculated is T, the period 5. A purpose of many experiments is to find the analysis. Commercial software is available that relationship between measured variables. A good handles data and instructs the microcomputer to way to accomplish this task is to plot a graph of carry out graphical analysis.
See your instructor the data and then analyze the graph. These guide- about the availability of this software for your lines should be followed in plotting your data: laboratory.
As an example consider the study of the speed 1. Use a sharp pencil or pen. A broad-tipped of an object dependent variable as a function of pencil or pen will introduce unnecessary inac- time independent variable. The data are as fol- curacies. Draw your graph on a full page of graph paper.
Give the graph a concise title. The dependent variable should be plotted 0. Label axes and include units. Select a scale for each axis and start each axis 1. Use error bars to indicate errors in measure- 2. Error range in Figure 1. The graphed data show that the speed v is a linear function of the time t. The general equation 8. Draw a smooth curve through the data points. Distance m Time s 2. M In this instance a straight line through the data 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 points would not be acceptable.
The graphed data, v versus t, show a linear relation. Often it is useful to know if the data agree with the theory. To determine the slope select two points on the line, but not data points, which are well separated, then. The data plotted in Figure 1. The graphed data, d of time. The data are as follows: versus t, show a nonlinear relation. Suppose I is measured as a function of x, and the data are plotted as is shown in Figure I.
From the smooth curve it would be difficult to determine the relationship between I and x, that is, it would be difficult to conclude the data obey Lambert's law.
A good way to determine the experimental relationship between I and x is to use semilog paper. Semilog paper has a logarithmic y axis it automatically takes logarithms of data plotted and a regularly spaced x axis. The data are plot- ted on semilog paper in Figure I. Note that there is never a zero on the logarithmic axis, and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 that when reading values off of a logarithmic axis t2 s2 you read the logarithm of the value and not the FIGURE 1.
The smooth curve drawn through the data is a straight line with a negative slope and the inten- The graph in Figure I. The equation result as can be seen by taking the logarithm of for the straight line is Lambert's law:.
For example, consider the 80 intensity of light I transmitted through a sample of thickness x, shown in Figure I. I 0 10 is the incident light intensity, x is the showing a nonlinear relation. From the sample thickness, and I is the transmitted graph it is not clear if the data obey Lam- intensity.
The linear relation obtained on semilog paper shows that the data obey Lambert's law. For example, the By equating theoretical and experimental slopes, semimajor axis R of the orbit of a planet is related we find that to its period time for one revolution around the sun T: The linear relation on log-log paper indicates Rand Tobey a power law of the form of equation A straight-line plot is obtained in the following plot y versus xn or R versus r on regular graph way.
Take logarithms paper see Figure 1. Log-log graph paper automatically 40 takes the logarithm of the plotted data. A log-log graph is shown in Figure 1. The errors shown in the graph are I 25 fictitious. This graph requires knowing the Another way to obtain a straight-line plot is to exponent in the power-law relation.
If the data points are linearly related, then Hence, the best estimate is the average or mean the process is called linear regression.
In general, value,. We assume that the method of least squares. The sum in the exponent is called the least-squares sum, The probability of obtaining the observed 41 value Yi is 2 and mmnmzmg it is equivalent to mmnmzmg 1 [ [y,. Note: We assume the data points follow the where Gauss distribution, and the method of least squares is used to find the most probable value. Typical data points xi, Yi and the equation of the line, which we want to deter- mine, are shown in Figure 1.
We make the following assumptions: We want this probability to be a maximum; hence, the exponent least-squares sum must be a 1. The measured values x;, Y; are distributed minimum. Minimizing the least-squares sum gives according to the Gauss distribution this is the equation for the best straight line.
The errors in X;, Jx;, are negligible in compari- each point xi, y,. We son to the errors in y;, Jy,. We approximate the set of n measurements xi, y; which is the exponent in, equation Next we set. This results in two simultaneous is much larger than the estimated errors, Jy;, equations: would indicate estimated errors that are unac- counted for.
She does this by measuring four values of x and estimates the error Jx. Calculate the mean, x, and the standard deviation of the mean, srn. Is her The equation for the best-fitting line is ob- estimated error too large, too small, or reason- tained by substituting equations 50 and 51 into able?
We ask this question: "What are the uncertain- We now consider the errors in a0 and a1, smao ties in a0 and a 1? Equations 50 and 51 give a0 and a 1 as assumed the same for all Y; and, hence, a0 and functions of the measured values x;, y; where the a 1 will both have uncertainties. These uncertain- statistical error for each Y; is given in equation The basic We ask the question: "What is the statistical formula for error propagation, equation 12, may uncertainty in the measurements y 1 , Y2, The reason for the factor of n - 2 in the denomi- Applying equation 56, Smao is nator of equation 52 is that the calculation of a0 and a 1 reduces the number of independent data 57 points x;, Y; from n to n - 2; the denominator in the equation for the standard deviation is the number of independent data points.
Example If a plot of the data or theoretical considerations The method of least squares and linear regression suggest a quadratic function of x, then we con- is applied to the speed versus time data given in sider only the first three terms in equation We the section on "Graphical Analysis," p. For each vi the result to be reported is. Taking the partial derivative of M with respect to where mis the number of bins, Ok is the number akand setting it equal to zero yields of observed or measured values in the kth bin, and Ek is the number of expected values in the kth bin.
The n measured values are divided into bins or ranges of values, where the bins must be chosen so that each bin contains several measured values. The Gauss and Poisson distri- tion 69, is as follows: butions are two of many theoretical distributions used in physics, corresponding to different kinds 1. The Poisson distribution is dis- theoretical distribution exactly. If a measured value falls freedom. To calculate Eb two parame- from a table of values of x. In addition,. Example 71 A distance is measured 20 times.
The measured values of x in cm are given in Table I. The mean value, calculated from equation 1, is is a constraint. The probability Pk is shown in Figure I. In this example the probabil- ity, obtained from tables see reference 1 , is between 0.
TABLE 1. Bin Number, k 2 3 4. Physical Review Phys. There is a wide Particles and Fields, respectively. Papers pub- spectrum of publishable results, ranging from a lished in Physical Review generally must con- cosmetic addendum on previously published work tain new results, although confirmation of to original, Nobel prize quality, work. The first previously published results of unusual im- step in publishing a paper is to decide whether the portance can be considered as new.
Your results in this 4. The Journal of Undergraduate Research in course are more likely to be publishable if you try Physics. You are urged to 5. Reviews of Modern Physics Rev. To do so, it is this journal. An important goal in an upper- 6.
Astrophysical Journal Astrophys. This division laboratory course is gaining familiarity journal publishes papers that generally con- with the journals. Many experiments in this book tain new results in astronomy, astrophysics, reference one or more journal articles. Some of and closely related fields. The level of the papers published in Physica is analogous to those published in 1. American Journal of Physics Am.
Physical Review. Like Physical Review, Phys- This journal is devoted to the instructional ica is divided into journals A, B, and so on, usually college and university level and cul- but the subtitles are not the same as those of tural aspects of physical science.
The Physics Teacher. This journal is dedicated 8. Physics Education Phys. Like The primarily to the teaching of introductory Physics Teacher, this journal is dedicated to physics at the high school, college, and uni- high school, college, and university level versity level.
Scientific American Sci. Scientific journal articles in each experiment that you per- American publishes timely articles on all as- form. Physics Today. Physics Today publishes edu- by the journal.
Most journals have a section enti- cational, research, political, and calendar of tled "Information for Contributors," which spe- events information. In addition, it publishes cifies the general style and other details required articles of historical, cultural, and scientific of a manuscript. The articles in many journals, for interest. Physical Review Letters Phys. Physical Review Letters is dedicated to pub- The required style of papers submitted to these lishing short communications dealing with im- journals is specified in the Style Manual of the portant new discoveries or topics of high AIP American Institute of Physics available current interest in rapidly changing fields of from AIP for a few dollars.
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See Appendix J. Reproduced with permission. A large number of articles are published each year author should list all of the PACS numbers that in physics journals. The PACS indexing scheme is apply to the article. Hence, in the index of a the method used to index articles according to journal a single article is often listed separately subject matter.
When an article is submitted to a under more than one subject category. Stochastic Processes. Set Theory. Photographic Instruments and Techniques 42 80 Optical Devices. A General Topics in Electomagnetic Technology D Electrostatics and Magnetostatics Units Induction Transmission Lines. D Electron Beams and Electron Optics G Ion Beams and Ion Optics I 0 General Theory 42 D Wave Fronts and Ray Tracing 4 7.
I 5 Laminar Flows 4 2 F Edge and Boundary Effects. Refraction 4 7,20 Hydrodynamic Stability 42 H Diffraction and Scattering from Extended Bodies Convection , and Heat Transfer 42 J Interference 4 7.
K Absorption 4 7. M Coherence 4 7. N Polarization 4 7. Q Propagation and Transmission in Homogeneous and 4 7. Image Formation and Analysis 4 7. Medical Physics. When doing an experiment it is important for the an experimentalist can make in recording or in experimentalist not to accept the data as correct analyzing data, and we briefly discuss some of without adequately questioning it. This is espe- them. A technique semiautomatically recorded.
The experimentalist that may prevent an experimentalist from falling should feel a sense of responsibility for the num- into this trap is to devise and carry out tests for bers data obtained. For example, often a standard listed below as a means of accepting the responsi- sample or a standard test signal may be available bility for your data. Your are urged to I. If the data are semiautomatically recorded, devise tests of this sort in order to avoid this kind then examine the "raw" data closely to determine of mistake.
Another mistake is to reach the wrong whether the equipment malfunctioned. It may be difficult to 2. After recording the data in your notebook avoid this pitfall. Perhaps the best advice is to examine the numbers for observational mistakes. Examination of the numbers may also reveal an Publishing a mistake and then later publishing a equipment malfunction that was not previously retraction is embarrassing and may damage one's detected.
Before making use of the techniques for 5. Unfortunately, some researchers have inten- propagating errors through the various intermedi- tionally falsified data. Not long ago, a researcher ate steps and into the final result, use common at a medical school was accused of, and the sense and ask yourself whether a given experimen- individual subsequently admitted to, falsifying tal result or error is reasonable.
If it is not, there data. The initial investigation indicated that the is an excellent chance that either the equipment integrity of six published papers and a large num- malfunctioned or you made an arithmetic or ob- ber of published abstracts were in question. As a servational mistake. Note the distinction between result of the data fabrication, the National Insti- mistake and error. The investigators did note that part of the Do not let anyone, either directly or indirectly, blame lies with the way research is done in the pressure you into falsifying data.
You are respon- modern laboratory: "A hurried pace and empha- sible for your data. Spectroscopic experiments are important because A typical spectroscopic experiment includes a so many experiments involve spectroscopy. Note source of particles, a sample, and an analyzer. Radiation, like Experiments, that there are nine spectroscopic matter, has both wave and particle properties, and experiments listed.
We would like to present the in some experiments it is adequate to treat radia- general ideas of such an experiment. For example, the wave Historical Note model of radiation is used in microwave spec- troscopy and the particle model is used in gamma- It is perhaps worth pointing out that many Nobel ray spectroscopy. A block diagram of the prizes have been awarded for spectroscopic work; apparatus is shown in Figure 1. Loosely speak- for example, one half of the prize was ing, this diagram represents a spectrometer.
A awarded jointly to microwave spectrometer is shown in Figure 2. The source of microwaves is the University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and klystron, the sample inserts into the cavity, and Arthur L.
Schawlow, the United States, Stanford the analyzer or detector is the diode. Often the University, Stanford, California analyzer is connected to a chart recorder, multi- For tfieir contribution to tfte development of laser spectroscoplJ channel analyzer, computer, or some other device for recording the signal.
Siegbahn, Sweden, Uppsala University, as the incident particles in spectrometers; how- Uppsala, Sweden ever, electrons and radiation are easily made For Ftis contribution to tfte development of Ftigft resolution electron available and many experiments use one of these spectroscoplJ.
In a typical spectroscopic. The particles that to-noise ratio, the information obtained from the escape carry information about the quantum states sample is discussed in Appendix A.
The information that the experi- Table I. Optica l Hg, Na. Teflon circuit Oscilloscope Coaxial line about 20 m in length Coaxial line about I m in length Various line terminations Pulse-generating circuit see Figure I. To study the amplitude of a reflected pulse as a function of load resistance. To measure the velocity of a pulse propagating on a coaxial transmission line.
To determine the capacitance of a 1-m coaxial line and use the result to calculate a theoretical velocity of a pulse propagating on a coaxial line. To observe the decrease in amplitude of a multi-reflected pulse and determine the attenuation constant of the coaxial line. The many thousands of books in our collection have been sourced from libraries and private collections around.
Excerpt from Experimental Physics a Text-Book of Mechanics, Heat, Sound and Light This book is intended as a text-book for use in connection with a course of experimental lectures on mechanics, properties of matter, heat, sound and light.
No previous knowledge of physics is assumed, but nevertheless the book is. Guide for Experimental Physics. Authors: D. Excerpt from Principles of Experimental Physics for Students of Science and Technology Considerable space has been given to an introduction in which is discussed several general principles relating to experimental work; here also an attempt has been made to formulate some rules relating to the use of doubtful and significant.
The Art of Teaching Physics. Authors: David M. Laboratory Manual of Experimental Physics. Excerpt from Laboratory Manual of Experimental Physics: A Brief Course of Quantitative Experiments Intended for Beginners The value of illustrative experiment is not denied, but it is claimed that vastly greater mental discipline will be derived by the student from.
Quantitative experiment, and therefore that it is Wiser to confine. Introduction to Experimental Physics, Theoretical and Practical. Excerpt from Introduction to Experimental Physics, Theoretical and Practical: Including Directions for Constructing Physical Apparatus and for Making Experiments Everyone who has tried to teach elementary Physics must have become aware of the great difficulty which the subject presents to the majority of pupils. This difficulty is of a twofold.
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